COALBED METHANE PRODUCT WATER CHEMISTRY IN THREE WYOMING WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: The Powder River Basin in Wyoming has become one of the most active areas of coalbed methane (CBM) development in the western United States. Extraction of methane from coalbeds requires pumping of aquifer water, which is called product water. Two to ten extraction wells are manifolded into one discharge point and product water is released into nearby unlined holding ponds. The objective of this study was to evaluate the chemistry, salinity, and sodicity of CBM product water at discharge points and associated holding ponds as a function of watershed. The product water samples from the discharge points and associated holding ponds were collected from the Cheyenne River (CHR), Belle Fourche River (BFR), and Little Powder River (LPR) watersheds during the summers of 1999 and 2000. These samples were analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), alkalinity, sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sulfate (SO₄^2‐), and chloride (C^1‐). From the chemical data, practical sodium adsorption ratio (SARp) and true sodium adsorption ratio (SARt) were calculated for the CBM discharge water and pond water. The pH, EC, TDS, alkalinity, Na, Ca, Mg, K, SARp, and SARt of CBM discharge water increased significantly moving north from the CHR watershed to the LPR watershed. CBM discharge water in associated holding ponds showed significant increases in EC, TDS, alkalinity, Na, K, SARp, and SARt moving north from the CHR to the LPR watershed. Within watersheds, the only significant change was an increase in pH from 7.21 to 8.26 between discharge points and holding ponds in the LPR watershed. However, the LPR and BFR exhibited larger changes in mean chemistry values in pH, salinity (EC, TDS), and sodicity (SAR) between CBM product water discharges and associated holding ponds than the CHR watershed. For instance, the mean EC and TDS of CBM product water in LPR increased from 1.93 to 2.09 dS/m, and froml,232 to 1,336 mg/L, respectively, between discharge and pond waters. The CHR exhibited no change in EC, TDS, Na, or SAR between discharge water and pond water. Also, while not statistically significant, mean alkalinity of CBM product water in BFR and LPR watersheds decreased from 9.81 to 8.01 meq/L and from 19.87 to 18.14 meq/L, respectively, between discharge and pond waters. The results of this study suggest that release of CBM product water onto the rangelands of BFR and LPR watersheds may precipitate calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) in soils, which in turn may decrease infiltration and increase runoff and erosion. Thus, use of CBM product water for irrigation in LPR and BFR watersheds may require careful planning based on water pH, EC, alkalinity, Na, and SAR, as well as local soil physical and chemical properties.     

Spatial distributions and eco-partitioning of soil biogeochemical properties in the Everglades National Park

Large-scale ecosystem restoration efforts, such as those in the Florida Everglades, can be long-term and resource intensive. To gauge success, restoration efforts must have a means to evaluate positive or negative results of instituted activities. Edaphic properties across the Everglades landscape have been determined to be a valuable metric for such evaluation, and as such, a baseline condition from which to make future comparisons and track ecosystem response is necessary. The objectives of this work were to document this baseline condition in the southern most hydrologic unit of the Everglades, Everglades National Park (ENP), and to determine if significant eco-partitioning of soil attributes exists that would suggest the need to focus monitoring efforts in particular eco-types within the ENP landscape. A total of 342 sites were sampled via soil coring and parameters such as total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), total carbon (TC), total calcium, total magnesium, and bulk density were measured at three depth increments in the soil profile (floc, 0-10 cm, and 10-20 cm). Geostatistical analysis and GIS applications were employed to interpolate site-specific biogeochemical properties of soils across the entire extent of the ENP. Spatial patterns and eco-type comparisons suggest TC and TN to be highest in Shark River Slough (SRS) and the mangrove interface (MI), following trends of greatest organic soil accumulation. However, TP patterns suggest greatest storages in MI, SRS, and western marl and wet prairies. Eco-partitioning of soil constituents suggest local drivers of geology and hydrology are significant in determining potential areas to focus monitoring for future change detection.     

Heavy metals in the SPM of air in the environment surrounding a ferro-alloy industrial plant in India

Prices for ferro-alloys have hardened due to the closure of plants in developed countries on account of increasingly stringent pollution control legislation, resulting in a higher cost of production. A ferro-alloy industry with a capacity of 80000 MT per annum was selected to study the nature of pollution. Because of the objectionable nature of polluting air in and around the plant it was located in a rural area where there was no other industry. The area was agriculturally active and there was no effective control system for this plant.The quality of ambient air around the plant site is discussed in this paper along with the meteorological conditions. The maximum concentration of suspended particulate matter (SPM) was 768 µg/NM³ downwind of the plant, minimum 184 µg/NM³, and the average was more than 446 µg/NM³. The presence of heavy metals, viz. Fe, Mn, Cr and Pb, was also assessed. The concentration of Fe was 50 µg/NM³ downwind and 10 µg/NM³ upwind. The concentration of other metals followed a similar trend.     

Hydrogeochemical characterization of fluoride rich groundwater of Wailpalli watershed, Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, India

The groundwater of Nalgonda district is well known for its very high fluoride content for the past five decades. Many researchers have contributed their scientific knowledge to unravel causes for fluoride enrichment of groundwater. In the present paper, an attempt has been made to relate the high fluoride content in the groundwater to hydrogeochemical characterization of the water in a fracture hard rock terrain—the Wailpally watershed. Groundwater samples collected from all the major geomorphic units in pre- and post-monsoon seasons were analyzed for its major ion constituents such as Ca^2?+?, Mg^2?+?, Na^?+?, K^?+?, CO $_{3}^{-}$ , HCO $_{3}^{-}$ , Cl^???, SO $_{4}^{-2}$ , NO $_{3}^{-}$ , and F^???. The groundwaters in the watershed have the average fluoride content of 2.79 mg/l in pre-monsoon and 2.83 mg/l in post-monsoon. Fluoride concentration in groundwater does not show perceptible change neither with time nor in space. The ionic dominance pattern is in the order of Na^?+? > Ca^2?+??> Mg^2?+??> K^??? among cations and HCO $_{3}^{-}\:\,>$ Cl^????> SO $_{4}^{-2} >$ NO $_{3}^{-} >$ F^??? among anions in pre-monsoon. In post-monsoon, Mg replaces Ca^2?+? and NO $_{3}^{-}$ takes the place of SO $_{4}^{-2}$ . The Modified Piper diagram reflect that the water belong to Ca^?+?2–Mg^?+?2–HCO $_{3}^{-}$ to Na^?+?–HCO $_{3}^{-}$ facies. Negative chloralkali indices in both the seasons prove that ion exchange between Na^?+? and K^?+? in aquatic solution took place with Ca^?+?2 and Mg^?+?2 of host rock. The interpretation of plots for different major ions and molar ratios suggest that weathering of silicate rocks and water–rock interaction is responsible for major ion chemistry of groundwater in Wailpally watershed. Chemical characteristics and evolution of this fluoride-contaminated groundwater is akin to normal waters of other hard rock terrain; hence, it can be concluded that aquifer material play an important role in the contribution of fluoride in to the accompanying water. High fluoride content in groundwater can be attributed to the continuous water–rock interaction during the process of percolation with fluorite-bearing country rocks under arid, low precipitation, and high evapotranspiration conditions.     

Soil contamination of heavy metals in the Katedan Industrial Development Area, Hyderabad, India

Studies on quantitative soil contamination due to heavy metals were carried out in Katedan Industrial Development Area (KIDA), south of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India under the Indo-Norwegian Institutional Cooperation Programme. The study area falls under a semi-arid type of climate and consists of granites and pegmatite of igneous origin belonging to the Archaean age. There are about 300 industries dealing with dyeing, edible oil production, battery manufacturing, metal plating, chemicals, etc. Most of the industries discharge their untreated effluents either on open land or into ditches. Solid waste from industries is randomly dumped along roads and open grounds. Soil samples were collected throughout the industrial area and from downstream residential areas and were analysed by X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer for fourteen trace metals and ten major oxides. The analytical data shows very high concentrations of lead, chromium, nickel, zinc, arsenic and cadmium through out the industrial area. The random dumping of hazardous waste in the industrial area could be the main cause of the soil contamination spreading by rainwater and wind. In the residential areas the local dumping is expected to be the main source as it is difficult to foresee that rain and wind can transport the contaminants from the industrial area. If emission to air by the smokestacks is significant, this may contribute to considerable spreading of contaminants like As, Cd and Pb throughout the area. A comparison of the results with the Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines (SQGL) show that most of the industrial area is heavily contaminated by As, Pb and Zn and local areas by Cr, Cu and Ni. The residential area is also contaminated by As and some small areas by Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn. The Cd contamination is detected over large area but it is not exceeding the SQGL value. Natural background values of As and Cr exceed the SQGL values and contribute significantly to the contamination in the residential area. However, the availability is considerably less than anthropogenic contaminants and must therefore be assessed differently. The pre- and post-monsoon sampling over two hydrological cycles in 2002 and 2003 indicate that the As, Cd and Pb contaminants are more mobile and may expect to reach the groundwater. The other contaminants seem to be much more stable. The contamination is especially serious in the industrial area as it is housing a large permanent residing population. The study not only aims at determining the natural background levels of trace elements as a guide for future pollution monitoring but also focuses on the pollution vulnerability of the watershed. A plan of action for remediation is recommended.     

Electroosmotic dewatering of dredged sediments: bench-scale investigation

The Indiana Harbor (Indiana, USA) has not been dredged since 1972 due to lack of a suitable disposal site for dredged sediment. As a result of this, over a million cubic yards of highly contaminated sediment has accumulated in the harbor. Recently, the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) has selected a site for the confined disposal facility (CDF) and is in the process of designing it. Although dredging can be accomplished rapidly, the disposal in the CDF has to be done slowly to allow adequate time for consolidation to occur. The sediment possesses very high moisture content and very low hydraulic conductivity, which cause consolidation to occur slowly. Consolidation of the sediment is essential in order to achieve adequate shear strength of sediments and also to provide enough air space to accommodate the large amount of sediment that requires disposal. Currently, it has been estimated that if a one 3-foot (0.9-m) thick layer of sediment was disposed of at the CDF annually, it would take approximately 10 years to dispose of all the sediment that is to be dredged from the Indiana Harbor. This study investigated the feasibility of using an electroosmotic dewatering technology to accelerate dewatering and consolidation of sediment, thereby allowing more rapid disposal of sediment into the CDF. Electroosmotic dewatering essentially involves applying a small electric potential across the sediment layer, thereby inducing rapid flow as a result of physico-chemical and electrochemical processes. A series of bench-scale electrokinetic experiments were conducted on actual dredged sediment samples from the Indiana Harbor to investigate dewatering rates caused by gravity alone, dewatering rates caused by gravity and electric potential, and the effects of the addition of polymer flocculants on dewatering of the sediments. The results showed that electroosmotic dewatering under an applied electric potential of 1.0VDC/cm could increase the rate of dewatering and consolidation by an order of magnitude as compared to gravity drainage alone. Amending the sediment with polymers at low concentrations (0.5-1% by dry weight) will enhance this dewatering process; however, the optimal polymer concentration and the cost-effectiveness of using polymers should be investigated further.     

Impact of glyphosate on the Bradyrhizobium japonicum symbiosis with glyphosate-resistant transgenic soybean: a minireview

Glyphosate-resistant (GR) soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] expressing an insensitive 5-enolpyruvylshikimic acid-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) gene has revolutionized weed control in soybean production. The soybean nitrogen fixing symbiont, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, possesses a glyphosate-sensitive enzyme and upon exposure to glyphosate accumulates shikimic acid and hydroxybenzoic acids such as protocatechuic acid (PCA), accompanied with B. japonicum growth inhibition and death at high concentrations. In a series of greenhouse and field experiments, glyphosate inhibited nodulation and nodule leghemoglobin content of GR soybean. Glyphosate accumulated in nodules of field-grown GR soybean, but its effect on nitrogenase activity of GR soybean was inconsistent in field studies. In greenhouse studies, nitrogenase activity of GR soybean following glyphosate application was transiently inhibited especially in early growth stages, with the greatest inhibition occurring under moisture stress. Studies using bacteroid preparations showed that the level of glyphosate inhibition of bacteroid nitrogenase activity was related to in vitro glyphosate sensitivity of the B. japonicum strains. These studies indicate the potential for reduced nitrogen fixation in the GR soybean system; however, yield reductions due to this reduced N2 fixation in early stages of growth have not been demonstrated.     

The reduction of internal phosphorus loading using alum in Spring Lake, Michigan

The release of P from lake sediments, which occurs as a part of internal loading, may contribute a significant portion of the total P load to a lake. Phosphorus release rates from sediments in Spring Lake, Michigan, and the degree to which alum reduces P release from these sediments, were investigated during the summer of 2003. Triplicate sediment cores were sampled from four sites in the lake, and exposed to one of four treatments in the laboratory: (i) aerobic water column/alum, (ii) aerobic water column/no alum, (iii) anaerobic water column/alum, or (iv) anaerobic water column/no alum. Total P (TP) release rates were virtually undetectable in the alum treatments (both aerobic and anaerobic). Low, but detectable, release rates were measured in the aerobic/no alum treatment. The highest release rates were measured in the anaerobic/no alum treatments, and ranged from 1.6 to 29.5 mg P m(-2) d(-1) depending on how the calculations were derived. These fluxes translated to mean internal loads that ranged between 2.7 (low range) and 6.4 (high range) Mg yr(-1) when extrapolated to a whole-lake basis. Internal P loads accounted for between 55 and 65% of the total P load to Spring Lake. Although alum is a potentially effective means of reducing the sediment source of P, there is considerable uncertainty in how long an alum treatment would remain effective in this system given the current rates of external loading and the lack of information on wind-wave action and bioturbation in Spring Lake.     

Impairment of male reproduction in adult rats exposed to hydroxyprogesterone caproate in utero

Hydroxyprogesterone caproate is one of the most effective and widely used drugs for the treatment of uterine bleeding and threatened miscarriage in women. Hydroxyprogesterone caproate was administered to pregnant rats in order to assess the effect of intraperitoneal exposure to supranormal levels of hydroxyprogesterone caproate on the male reproductive potential in the first generation. The cauda epididymal sperm count and motility decreased significantly in rats exposed to hydroxyprogesterone caproate during embryonic development, when compared with control rats. The levels of serum testosterone decreased with an increase in follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone in adult rats exposed to hydroxyprogesterone caproate during the embryonic stage. It was suggested that the impairment of male reproductive performance could be mediated through the inhibition of testosterone production.     

Development of a highly sensitive extractive spectrophotometric method for the determination of nickel(II) from environmental matrices using N-ethyl-3-carbazolecarboxaldehyde-3-thiosemicarbazone

Nickel(II) reacts with N-ethyl-3-carbazolecarboxaldehyde-3-thiosemicarbazone (ECCT) and forms a yellow colored complex, which was extracted into n-butanol from sodium acetate and acetic acid buffer at pH 6.0. The absorbance value of the Ni(II)-ECCT complex was measured at different intervals of time at 400nm, to ascertain the time stability of the complex. The extraction of the complex into the solvent was instantaneous and stable for more than 72h. The system obeyed Beer's law in the concentration range of 1.2-5.6mugml(-1) of nickel(II), with an excellent linearity and a correlation coefficient of 0.999. The molar absorptivity and Sandell's sensitivity of the extracted species were found to be 1.114x10(4)Lmol(-1)cm(-1) and 5.29x10(-3)mugcm(-2) at 400nm, respectively. Hence, a detailed study of the extraction of nickel(II) with ECCT has been undertaken with a view to developing a rapid and sensitive extractive spectrophotometric method for the determination of nickel(II) when present alone or in the presence of diverse ions which are usually associated with nickel(II) in environmental matrices like soil and industrial effluents. Various standard alloy samples (CM 247 LC, IN 718, BCS 233, 266, 253 and 251) have been tested for the determination of nickel for the purpose of validation of the present method. The results of the proposed method are comparable with those from atomic absorption spectrometry and were found to be in good agreement.